What is Culture?
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Edward B. Tylor
(1832-1917) |
The word culture has many different meanings. For some it refers to an appreciation of good literature, music, art, and food. For a biologist, it is likely to be a colony of bacteria or other microorganisms growing in a nutrient medium in a laboratory Petri dish. However, for anthropologists and other behavioral scientists, culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns. The term was first used in this way by the pioneer English Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor in his book, Primitive Culture, published in 1871. Tylor said that culture is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." Of course, it is not limited to men. Women possess and create it as well. Since Tylor's time, the concept of culture has become the central focus of anthropology.
Culture
is a powerful human tool for survival, but it is a fragile phenomenon. It
is constantly changing and easily lost because it exists only in our
minds. Our written languages, governments, buildings, and other man-made
things are merely the products of culture. They are not culture in
themselves. For this reason, archaeologists can not dig up culture directly in their
excavations. The broken pots and other artifacts of ancient people that
they uncover are only material remains that reflect cultural patterns--they are
things that were made and used through cultural knowledge and skills.
Layers of Culture
There are
very likely three layers or levels of culture that are part of your learned
behavior patterns and perceptions. Most obviously is the body of cultural
traditions that distinguish your specific society. When people speak of
Italian, Samoan, or Japanese culture, they are referring to the shared
language, traditions, and beliefs that set each of these peoples apart from
others. In most cases, those who share your culture do so because they
acquired it as they were raised by parents and other family members who have
it.
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The
second layer of culture that may be part of your identity is a subculture 
. In complex, diverse
societies in which people have come from many different parts of the world,
they often retain much of their original cultural traditions. As a
result, they are likely to be part of an identifiable subculture in their new
society. The shared cultural traits of subcultures set them apart from
the rest of their society. Examples of easily identifiable subcultures in
the United States include ethnic groups such as Vietnamese Americans, African
Americans, and Mexican Americans. Members of each of these subcultures
share a common identity, food tradition, dialect or language, and other
cultural traits that come from their common ancestral background and
experience. As the cultural differences between members of a subculture
and the dominant national culture blur and eventually disappear, the subculture
ceases to exist except as a group of people who claim a common ancestry.
That is generally the case with German Americans and Irish Americans in the
United States today. Most of them identify themselves as Americans
first. They also see themselves as being part of the cultural mainstream
of the nation.
. In complex, diverse
societies in which people have come from many different parts of the world,
they often retain much of their original cultural traditions. As a
result, they are likely to be part of an identifiable subculture in their new
society. The shared cultural traits of subcultures set them apart from
the rest of their society. Examples of easily identifiable subcultures in
the United States include ethnic groups such as Vietnamese Americans, African
Americans, and Mexican Americans. Members of each of these subcultures
share a common identity, food tradition, dialect or language, and other
cultural traits that come from their common ancestral background and
experience. As the cultural differences between members of a subculture
and the dominant national culture blur and eventually disappear, the subculture
ceases to exist except as a group of people who claim a common ancestry.
That is generally the case with German Americans and Irish Americans in the
United States today. Most of them identify themselves as Americans
first. They also see themselves as being part of the cultural mainstream
of the nation. |
These
Cuban American
women in Miami, Florida have a shared subculture identity that is reinforced through their language, food, and other traditions |
The third
layer of culture consists of cultural universals.
These are learned behavior patterns that are shared by all of humanity
collectively. No matter where people live in the world, they share these
universal traits. Examples of such "human cultural" traits
include:
1.
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communicating with a verbal language consisting of a limited set of
sounds and grammatical rules for constructing sentences
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2.
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using age and gender to classify people (e.g., teenager, senior
citizen, woman, man)
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3.
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classifying people based on marriage and descent relationships and
having kinship terms to refer to
them (e.g., wife, mother, uncle, cousin) |
4.
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raising children in some sort of family setting
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5.
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having a sexual division of labor (e.g., men's work versus women's
work)
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6.
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having a concept of privacy
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7.
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having rules to regulate sexual behavior
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8.
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distinguishing between good and bad behavior
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9.
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having some sort of body ornamentation
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10.
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making jokes and playing games
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11.
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having art
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12.
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having some sort of leadership roles for the implementation of
community decisions
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While all
cultures have these and possibly many other universal traits, different
cultures have developed their own specific ways of carrying out or expressing
them. For instance, people in deaf subcultures frequently use their hands
to communicate with sign language instead of verbal language. However,
sign languages have grammatical rules just as verbal ones do.
Culture and Society
Culture
and society are not the same thing. While cultures are complexes of learned behavior patterns
and perceptions, societies are groups of interacting organisms.
People are not the only animals that have societies. Schools of fish,
flocks of birds, and hives of bees are societies. In the case of humans,
however, societies are groups of people who directly or indirectly interact
with each other. People in human societies also generally perceive that
their society is distinct from other societies in terms of shared traditions
and expectations.
are not the same thing. While cultures are complexes of learned behavior patterns
and perceptions, societies are groups of interacting organisms.
People are not the only animals that have societies. Schools of fish,
flocks of birds, and hives of bees are societies. In the case of humans,
however, societies are groups of people who directly or indirectly interact
with each other. People in human societies also generally perceive that
their society is distinct from other societies in terms of shared traditions
and expectations.
While
human societies and cultures are not the same thing, they are inextricably connected
because culture is created and transmitted to others in a society.
Cultures are not the product of lone individuals. They are the
continuously evolving products of people interacting with each other.
Cultural patterns such as language and politics make no sense except in terms
of the interaction of people. If you were the only human on earth, there
would be no need for language or government.
Is Culture Limited to Humans?
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Non-human
culture?
This orangutan mother is using a specially prepared stick to "fish out" food from a crevice. She learned this skill and is now teaching it to her child who is hanging on her shoulder and intently watching. |
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There is
a difference of opinion in the behavioral sciences about whether or not we are
the only animal that creates and uses culture. The answer to this
question depends on how narrow culture is defined. If it is used broadly
to refer to a complex of learned behavior patterns, then it is clear that we
are not alone in creating and using culture. Many other animal species
teach their young what they themselves learned in order to survive. This
is especially true of the chimpanzees and other relatively intelligent apes and
monkeys. Wild chimpanzee mothers typically teach their children about
several hundred food and medicinal plants. Their children also have to
learn about the dominance hierarchy and the social rules within their
communities. As males become teenagers, they acquire hunting skills from
adults. Females have to learn how to nurse and care for their
babies. Chimpanzees even have to learn such basic skills as how to
perform sexual intercourse. This knowledge is not hardwired into their
brains at birth. They are all learned patterns of behavior just as they
are for humans.
CULTURE
SOME DEFINITIONS
- Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.
- Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large group of people.
- Culture is communication, communication is culture.
- Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the totality of a person's learned, accumulated experience which is socially transmitted, or more briefly, behavior through social learning.
- A culture is a way of life of a group of people--the behaviors, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next.
- Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a group's skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions.
- Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other hand, as conditioning influences upon further action.
- Culture is the sum of total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are generally considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from generation to generation.
- Culture is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.
LAYERS OF CULTURE
People
even within the same culture carry several layers of mental programming within
themselves. Different layers of culture exist at the following levels:
- The national level: Associated with the nation as a whole.
- The regional level: Associated with ethnic, linguistic, or religious differences that exist within a nation.
- The gender level: Associated with gender differences (female vs. male)
- The generation level: Associated with the differences between grandparents and parents, parents and children.
- The social class level: Associated with educational opportunities and differences in occupation.
- The corporate level: Associated with the particular culture of an organization. Applicable to those who are employed.
MEASURING CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
A
variable can be operationalized either by single- or composite-measure
techniques. A single-measure technique means the use of one indicator to
measure the domain of a concept; the composite-measure technique means the use
of several indicators to construct an index for the concept after the domain of
the concept has been empirically sampled. Hofstede (1997) has devised a
composite-measure technique to measure cultural differences among different
societies:
- Power distance index: The index measures the degree of inequality that exists in a society.
- Uncertainty avoidance index: The index measures the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain or ambiguous situations.
- Individualism index: The index measure the extent to which a society is individualistic. Individualism refers to a loosely knit social framework in a society in which people are supposed to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. The other end of the spectrum would be collectivism that occurs when there is a tight social framework in which people distinguish between in-groups and out-groups; they expect their in-groups (relatives, clans, organizations) to look after them in exchange for absolute loyalty.
- Masculinity index (Achievement vs. Relationship): The index measures the extent to which the dominant values are assertiveness, money and things (achievement), not caring for others or for quality of life. The other end of the spectrum would be femininity (relationship).
RECONCILIATION OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Cultural
awareness:
- Before venturing on a global assignment, it is probably necessary to identify the cultural differences that may exist between one's home country and the country of business operation. Where the differences exist, one must decide whether and to what extent the home-country practices may be adapted to the foreign environment. Most of the times the differences are not very apparent or tangible. Certain aspects of a culture may be learned consciously (e.g. methods of greeting people), some other differences are learned subconsciously (e.g. methods of problem solving). The building of cultural awareness may not be an easy task, but once accomplished, it definitely helps a job done efficiently in a foreign environment.
- Discussions and reading about other cultures definitely helps build cultural awareness, but opinions presented must be carefully measured. Sometimes they may represent unwarranted stereotypes, an assessment of only a subgroup of a particular group of people, or a situation that has since undergone drastic changes. It is always a good idea to get varied viewpoints about the same culture.
Clustering
cultures:
- Some countries may share many attributes that help mold their cultures (the modifiers may be language, religion, geographical location, etc.). Based on this data obtained from past cross-cultural studies, countries may be grouped by similarities in values and attitudes. Fewer differences may be expected when moving within a cluster than when moving from one cluster to another.
Determining
the extent of global involvement:
- All enterprises operating globally need not have the same degree of cultural awareness. Figure 2 illustrates extent to which a company needs to understand global cultures at different levels of involvement. The further a company moves out from the sole role of doing domestic business, the more it needs to understand cultural differences. Moving outward on more than one axis simultaneously makes the need for building cultural awareness even more essential.
Figure 2. Cultural Awareness and Extent
of Global Involvement
In the 20th century, "culture" emerged as a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of human phenomena that cannot be attributed to genetic inheritance. Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively.
A distinction is current between the physical artifacts created by a society, its so-called material culture and everything else,[3] the intangibles such as language, customs, etc. that are the main referent of the term "culture".
Culture (Latin: cultura, lit. "cultivation")[1] is a modern concept based on a term first used in classical antiquity by the Roman orator, Cicero: "cultura animi". The term "culture" appeared first in its current sense in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, to connote a process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture. In the 19th century, the term developed to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals. In the mid-19th century, some scientists used the term "culture" to refer to a universal human capacity. For the German nonpositivist sociologist Georg Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history".[2]
In the 20th century, "culture" emerged as a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of human phenomena that cannot be attributed to genetic inheritance. Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively.
A distinction is current between the physical artifacts created by a society, its so-called material culture and everything else,[3] the intangibles such as language, customs, etc. that are the main referent of the term "culture".
types of culture
Western culture
The
term Western culture has come to define the culture of European countries as
well as those such as the United States that have been heavily influenced by
European immigration. Western culture has its roots in the Classical Period of
the Greco-Roman era and the rise of Christianity in the fourteenth century.
Other
drivers of the Western culture include Latin, Celtic, Germanic and Hellenic
ethnic and linguistic groups. Today, the influences of Western culture can be
seen in almost every country in the world.
Eastern
culture was heavily influenced by religion. This giant statue of Buddha overlooks
Hong Kong.
CREDIT: Konstantin Sutyagin | Shutterstock
CREDIT: Konstantin Sutyagin | Shutterstock
Eastern culture
Eastern
culture generally refers to the societal norms of countries in Far East Asia
(including China, Japan, Vietnam, North Korea and South Korea) and the Indian
subcontinent. Like the West, Eastern culture was heavily influenced by religion
during its early development. In general, in Eastern culture there is less of a
distinction between secular society and religious philosophy than there is in
the West.
Latin culture
Many
of the Spanish-speaking nations are considered part of the Latin culture, while
the geographic region is widespread. Latin America is typically defined as
those parts of the Central America, South America and Mexico where Spanish or
Portuguese are the dominant languages. While Spain and Portugal are on the
European continent, they are considered the key influencers of what is known as
Latin culture, which denotes people using languages derived from Latin, also
known as Romance languages.
The
El-Deir Monastery at Petra, Jordan, is an example of traditional Middle Eastern
culture.
CREDIT: Zurijeta | Shutterstock
CREDIT: Zurijeta | Shutterstock
Middle Eastern culture
The
countries of the Middle East have some but not all things in common, including
a strong belief in Islam and religion is a very strong pillar of this society.
The Arabic language is also common throughout the region; however, the wide
variety of dialect can sometimes make communication difficult.
African culture
The
continent of Africa is essential two cultures—North Africa and Sub-Saharan
Africa. The continent is comprised of a number of tribes, ethnic and social
groups. One of the key features of this culture is the large number of ethnic
groups—some countries can have 20 or more—and the diversity of their beliefs
Northwest
Africa in particular has strong ties to European and Southwestern Asia. The
area also has a heavy Islamic influence and is a major player in the Arab
world.
The
harsh environment has been a large factor in the development of Sub-Saharan
Africa culture, as there are a number of languages, cuisines, art and musical
styles that have sprung up among the far-flung populations.
—Kim Ann Zimmermann
Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two
or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect
is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect. A closely related term is interconnectivity, which deals with
the interactions of interactions within systems: combinations of many simple
interactions can lead to surprising emergent phenomena. Interaction
has different tailored meanings in various sciences.[citation needed]
Casual
examples of interaction outside of science include:[citation needed]
- Communication of any sort, for example two or more people talking to each other, or communication among groups, organizations, nations or states: trade, migration, foreign relations, transportation,
- The feedback during the operation of machines such as a computer or tool, for example the interaction between a driver and the position of his or her car on the road: by steering the driver influences this position, by observation this information returns to the driver.
When many different cultures live together in one society, misunderstandings, biases, and judgments are inevitable—but fair evaluations, relationships, and learning experiences are also possible. Cultures cannot remain entirely separate, no matter how different they are, and the resulting effects are varied and widespread.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge another culture by the standards of one’s own culture. Ethnocentrism usually entails the notion that one’s own culture is superior to everyone else’s.
Example: Americans tend to value technological advancement, industrialization, and the accumulation of wealth. An American, applying his or her own standards to a culture that does not value those things, may view that culture as “primitive” or “uncivilized.” Such labels are not just statements but judgments: they imply that it is better to be urbanized and industrialized than it is to carry on another kind of lifestyle.
People in other cultures, such as some European cultures, also see American culture through the lens of their own ethnocentrism. To members of other cultures, Americans may seem materialistic, brash, or arrogant, with little intellectual subtlety or spirituality. Many Americans would disagree with that assessment.
Exported Ethnocentrism
When missionaries go to other countries to convert the local people to their brand of religion, they are practicing ethnocentrism. Missionaries usually want to convert people to their own forms of worship, and they sometimes encourage people to give up their religious beliefs.
Cultural Relativism
The opposite of ethnocentrism is cultural relativism—the examination of a cultural trait within the context of that culture. Cultural relativists try to understand unfamiliar values and norms without judging them and without applying the standards of their own culture.
Example: In India, the concepts of dating, love, and marriage differ from those in the United States. Though love is important, parents choose their children’s spouses according to similarities in educational levels, religions, castes, and family backgrounds. The families trust that love will develop over time but believe that a wedding can take place without it. From an American ethnocentric perspective, arranging marriages appears to be a custom that limits individual freedom. On the other hand, a cultural relativist would acknowledge that arranged marriages serve an important function in India and other cultures.
Culture Shock
The practices of other cultures can be and often are jarring, and even the most adept cultural relativist is not immune to culture shock. Culture shock is the surprise, disorientation, and fear people can experience when they encounter a new culture.
Example: Visitors to Western Europe from Islamic countries often experience culture shock when they see women wearing what they consider to be revealing clothing and unmarried couples kissing or holding hands in public, because these behaviors are forbidden or frowned upon in their own cultures.
Culture Shock at Home
Encountering an unfamiliar subculture in one’s own country, spending time with very rich or very poor people, or spending time with a group of people who hold radical or unfamiliar political views can produce culture shock just as much as encountering a brand-new culture in a foreign country.
Culture Lag
In 1922, the sociologist William Ogburn coined the term culture lag. Culture lag refers to the tendency for changes in material and nonmaterial culture to occur at different rates. Ogburn proposed that, in general, changes in nonmaterial culture tend to lag behind changes in material culture, including technological advances.
Technology progresses at a rapid rate, but our feelings and beliefs about it, part of our nonmaterial culture, lag behind our knowledge of how to enact technological change.
Example: Though the technology that allows people to meet online has existed for years, an understanding of what the proper conduct is in an online “dating” situation lags behind the knowledge of how to use the technology. No definite answers exist to many important questions: How long should people talk over the internet before meeting in person? What is the right interval of response time between emails? New technology has brought with it new questions and uncertainties.
Cultural Diffusion
Cultural diffusion is the process whereby an aspect of culture spreads throughout a culture or from one culture to another.
Example: In the United States in the early 1990s, only people who needed to be available in emergencies, such as doctors, carried cell phones. Today, every member of a family may have his or her own cell phone. In some developing nations, where standard telephone lines and other communications infrastructures are unreliable or nonexistent, cell phones have been welcomed enthusiastically, as they provide people with an effective communication tool.
Global Diffusion
Many aspects of American culture, such as McDonald’s hamburgers and Coca-Cola, have been diffused to other countries, and food items from other countries have become diffused throughout the United States. Sushi, for example, is now available in grocery stores in many parts of the country, and pizza can be found almost everywhere in the United States.
There is a tendency to use the term in a less strict way, to mean approximately the same thing as "culture" and therefore, the term can more broadly refer to any important and clearly defined human society.[1] Still, even when used in this second sense, the word is often restricted to apply only to societies that have attained a particular level of advancement—especially the founding of cities.
The level of advancement of a civilization is often measured by its progress in agriculture, long-distance trade, occupational specialization, a special governing class, and urbanism. Aside from these core elements, a civilization is often marked by any combination of a number of secondary elements, including a developed transportation system, writing, standardized measurement, currency, contractual and tort-based legal systems, characteristic art and architecture, mathematics, enhanced scientific understanding, metallurgy, political structures, and organized religion.
simpler
cultures were small groups that enabled them to survive, a civilization was
what came later, it was more complex and it was formed for a larger number of
human beings :)
Culture
means our thoughts, beliefs, behaviors, customs & rituals, languages, art,
work, the way we work, our way of living etc. Culture is ltaught and passed on
from one generation to the next generation.
The culture slowly evolves into a civilization, meaning culture gives rise to civilization. A civilization is an organized form living that includes various aspects such as social, religious, political and military.
The culture slowly evolves into a civilization, meaning culture gives rise to civilization. A civilization is an organized form living that includes various aspects such as social, religious, political and military.
I think
there is a difference between Culture and Civilization.
· Civilization is more wideness than Culture, it is the comprehensive result of the complementary efforts of the human communities throughout the history.
· In one word, it is a cumulative fruit of the continuous action throughout of the succession of the human generations.
· Civilization is founded generally, on tow pillars, cultural pillar and material pillar.
· From the material side, I believe there is only one building of the human civilization.
So, I believe that we are in front of a cumulative civilization; consist of a divers civilized unites, every unite belongs a certain nation in the course of the human history.
· Civilization is more wideness than Culture, it is the comprehensive result of the complementary efforts of the human communities throughout the history.
· In one word, it is a cumulative fruit of the continuous action throughout of the succession of the human generations.
· Civilization is founded generally, on tow pillars, cultural pillar and material pillar.
· From the material side, I believe there is only one building of the human civilization.
So, I believe that we are in front of a cumulative civilization; consist of a divers civilized unites, every unite belongs a certain nation in the course of the human history.
Culture Vs Civilization
Firstly, civilization in theory is
bigger than culture in which an entire civilization can encompass one single
unit of culture. Civilization is a bigger unit than culture because it is a complex
aggregate of the society that dwells within a certain area, along with its
forms of government, norms, and even culture. Thus, culture is just a spec or a
portion of an entire civilization. For example, the Egyptian civilization has
an Egyptian culture in the same way as the Greek civilization has their Greek
culture.
A culture ordinarily exists within a
civilization. In this regard, each civilization can contain not only one but
several cultures. Comparing culture and civilization is like showing the
difference between language and the country to which it is being used.
Culture can exist in itself whereas
civilization cannot be called a civilization if it does not possess a certain culture. It’s just like
asking how a nation can exist on its own without the use of a medium of
communication. Hence, a civilization will become empty if it does not have its
culture, no matter how little it is.
Culture can be something that is
tangible and it can also be something that isn’t. Culture can become a physical
material if it is a product of the beliefs, customs and practices of a certain
people with a definite culture. But a civilization is something that can be
seen as a whole and it is more or less tangible although its basic components,
like culture, can be immaterial.
Culture can be learned and in the same
manner it can also be transmitted from one generation to the next. Using a medium
of speech and communication, it is possible for a certain type of culture to
evolve and even be inherited by another group of people. On the other hand,
civilization cannot be transferred by mere language alone. Because of its
complexity and magnitude, you need to transfer all of the raw aggregates of a
civilization for it to be entirely passed on. It just grows, degrades and may
eventually end if all its subunits will fail.
Summary :
Summary :
1.Culture is by definition smaller than
a civilization.
2.Culture can grow and exist without
residing in a formal civilization whereas a civilization will never grow and
exist without the element of culture.
3.Culture can be tangible or intangible
whereas civilization is something that is more tangible because it is what you
see as a whole
4.Culture can be transmitted through
symbols in the form of language whereas an entire civilization cannot be
transmitted by mere language alone.
Name : Ita Rosita
Class : 4SA02
NPM : 15609390
